Filosofía budista – La multitud de caminos hacia la liberación

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La filosofía budista se refiere a las investigaciones filosóficas y sistemas de indagación que se desarrollaron entre diversas escuelas budistas en India tras el parinirvana del Buda y que posteriormente se difundieron por toda Asia.

El camino budista

El camino budista combina tanto el razonamiento filosófico como la meditación.

Las tradiciones budistas presentan una multitud de caminos budistas hacia la liberación, y los pensadores budistas en India y, posteriormente, en Asia Oriental han abordado temas tan variados como la fenomenología, la ética, la ontología, la epistemología, la lógica y la filosofía del tiempo en su análisis de estos caminos.

El budismo temprano se basaba en la evidencia empírica obtenida a través de los órganos sensoriales, y el Buda parece haber mantenido una distancia escéptica respecto a ciertas cuestiones metafísicas, negándose a responderlas porque no eran propicias para la liberación, sino que conducían a una mayor especulación.

Un tema recurrente en la filosofía budista ha sido la reificación de conceptos y el posterior retorno al Camino Medio budista.

Las escuelas budistas

Puntos particulares de la filosofía budista han sido a menudo objeto de disputas entre diferentes escuelas del budismo.

Estas elaboraciones y disputas dieron origen a varias escuelas en el budismo temprano de Abhidharma y a las tradiciones Mahayana como Prajnaparamita, Madhyamaka, naturaleza del Buda y Yogācāra.

Glosario de conceptos filosóficos budistas

Esta es una lista de conceptos relacionados con la filosofía budista de diversas escuelas del budismo.

Bodhisattva

En el budismo, Bodhisattva es el término sánscrito para cualquier persona que ha generado Bodhicitta, un deseo espontáneo y una mente compasiva para alcanzar la Budeidad en beneficio de todos los seres sintientes. Los Bodhisattvas son un tema popular en el arte budista.

Budeidad

En el budismo, la Budeidad es la condición o rango de un Buda «el despertado». El objetivo del camino del bodhisattva en el Mahayana es la Samyaksambuddhahood, para que uno pueda beneficiar a todos los seres sintientes enseñándoles el camino de la cesación del dukkha.

Arhat

Santos budistas que representan a los primeros seguidores del Buda, siempre se encuentran en un grupo de dieciséis, a menudo pintados en tela, murales y construidos de metal, piedra y madera. En China, se les llama Lohan y comúnmente se les refiere como un grupo de dieciocho o quinientos.

Dzogchen

Dzogchen o «Gran Perfección», sánscrito: अतियोग, es una tradición de enseñanzas en el budismo tibetano destinada a descubrir y continuar en el estado primordial natural del ser. Es una enseñanza central de la escuela Nyingma del budismo tibetano y del Bon. En estas tradiciones, Dzogchen es el camino más alto y definitivo de los nueve vehículos hacia la liberación.

Bodhicitta

En el budismo Mahayana, bodhicitta es la mente (citta) que está dirigida hacia la iluminación (bodhi), con sabiduría y compasión para el beneficio de todos los seres sintientes. Bodhicitta es la cualidad definitoria del bodhisattva Mahayana y el acto de generar bodhicitta (bodhicittotpāda) es lo que convierte a un bodhisattva en un bodhisattva. El Daśabhūmika Sūtra explica que el surgimiento de bodhicitta es el primer paso en la carrera del bodhisattva.

Bardo

En algunas escuelas del budismo, bardo o antarabhāva (sánscrito) es un estado intermedio, transicional o liminal entre la muerte y el renacimiento. Es un concepto que surgió poco después del fallecimiento del Buda, con varios grupos budistas anteriores aceptando la existencia de tal estado intermedio, mientras que otras escuelas lo rechazaron. En el budismo tibetano, el bardo es el tema central del Bardo Thodol, el Libro Tibetano de los Muertos.

Cosmología budista

La cosmología budista describe los planos y reinos en los que los seres pueden renacer. La cosmología espacial consiste en una cosmología vertical, los diversos planos de seres, en los que los seres renacen debido a sus méritos y desarrollo; y una cosmología horizontal, la distribución de estos sistemas mundiales en una «aparentemente» hoja infinita de «mundos». La cosmología temporal describe el lapso de tiempo de la creación y disolución de universos en eones. La cosmología budista también está entrelazada con la creencia del karma y explica que el mundo que nos rodea es el producto de acciones pasadas. Como resultado, algunas eras están llenas de prosperidad y paz debido a la bondad común, mientras que otras épocas están llenas de sufrimiento, deshonestidad y cortas expectativas de vida.

Chöd

Chöd es una práctica espiritual que se encuentra principalmente en las escuelas Nyingma y Kagyu del budismo tibetano. También conocida como «Cortar a través del ego», las prácticas se basan en los sutras de Prajñāpāramitā o «Perfección de la Sabiduría», que exponen el concepto de «vacío» de la filosofía budista.

Rigpa

En la enseñanza del Dzogchen, rigpa es el conocimiento de la base. El opuesto de rigpa es marigpa.

Yogachara

Yogachara es una tradición influyente de la filosofía y psicología budista que enfatiza el estudio de la cognición, la percepción y la conciencia a través de la lente interior de las prácticas meditativas y yóguicas. También se le denomina de diversas maneras Vijñānavāda, Vijñaptivāda o Vijñaptimātratā-vāda, que es también el nombre dado a su principal teoría epistémica. Hay varias interpretaciones de esta teoría principal; algunos académicos la ven como una especie de idealismo, mientras que otros argumentan que está más cerca de una especie de fenomenología o representacionalismo.

History of Dzogchen

Dzogchen, also known as atiyoga, is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. The primordial ground is said to have the qualities of purity, spontaneity and compassion. The goal of Dzogchen is knowledge of this basis, this knowledge is called rigpa . There are numerous spiritual practices taught in the various Dzogchen systems for recognizing rigpa.

Three Jewels and Three Roots

In Buddhism, the Three Jewels, Triple Gem, or Three Refuges are the supports in which a Buddhist takes refuge by means of a prayer or recitation at the beginning of the day or of a practice session.

Rangtong-Shentong

Rangtong y shentong son dos visiones distintivas sobre la vacuidad (sunyata) y la doctrina de las dos verdades dentro del budismo tibetano.

Prasaṅgika according to Tsongkhapa

The Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction is a set of arguments about two different positions of emptiness philosophy which are debated within the Mahayana school of Buddhism. It is most prominently discussed in Tibetan Buddhism where Prāsaṅgika and Svātantrika, are viewed to be different forms of Madhyamaka philosophy.

Sutras del Tathāgatagarbha

Los sūtras Tathāgatagarbha son un grupo de sūtras del Mahayana que presentan el concepto del «útero» o «embrión» (garbha) del tathāgata, el buda. Cada ser sintiente tiene la posibilidad de alcanzar la Budeidad gracias al tathāgatagarbha.

Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction

The Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction is a doctrinal distinction made within Tibetan Buddhism between two stances regarding the use of logic and the meaning of conventional truth within the presentation of Madhyamaka.

Terma (religion)

Terma are various forms of hidden teachings that are key to Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhist and Bon religious traditions. The belief is that these teachings were originally esoterically hidden by various adepts such as Padmasambhava and dakini such as Yeshe Tsogyal (consorts) during the 8th century, for future discovery at auspicious times by other adepts, who are known as tertöns. As such, terma represent a tradition of continuous revelation in Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism. Termas are a part of tantric literature.

Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism

According to Edward Conze, Greek Skepticism can be compared to Buddhist philosophy, especially the Indian Madhyamika school. The Pyrrhonian Skeptics’ goal of ataraxia is similar to the Buddhist soteriological goal nirvana.

Sakadagami

In Buddhism, the Sakadāgāmin, «returning once» or «once-returner,» is a partially enlightened person, who has cut off the first three chains with which the ordinary mind is bound, and significantly weakened the fourth and fifth. Sakadagaminship is the second stage of the four stages of enlightenment.

View (Dzogchen)

In Dzogchen, the view is one of the Three Dharmas of the Path of Dzogchen. The other two dharmas of the path are practice (gompa) and conduct (chöpa).

Visuddhimagga

The Visuddhimagga, is the ‘great treatise’ on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th Century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and systematizing the 5th century understanding and interpretation of the Buddhist path as maintained by the elders of the Mahavihara Monastery in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

Nibbāna: The Mind Stilled

Nibbāna: The Mind Stilled is the translation of a series of 33 sermons delivered in Sinhala by Venerable Bhikkhu Katukurunde Ñāṇananda during the late 1980s & early 1990s. The main focus of the sermons was on the psychological import of the term nibbāna and the deeper philosophical implications underlying this much-vexed term. The first volume of the 7-volume series was published in 2003.

Madhyamakāvatāra

The Madhyamakāvatāra is a text by Candrakīrti on the Mādhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy. It is a commentary on the meaning of Nagarjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and the Ten Stages Sutra. As such, within the Tibetan Buddhist canon this text is classified as commentarial literature.

Madhyamakālaṃkāra

The Madhyamakālaṃkāra is an eighth-century Buddhist text, believed to have been originally composed in Sanskrit by Śāntarakṣita (725–788), which is extant in Tibetan. The Tibetan text was translated from the Sanskrit by Surendrabodhi and Jñānasūtra.

Sotāpanna

In Buddhism, a sotāpanna (Pali), śrotāpanna, «stream-enterer», «stream-winner», or «stream-entrant» is a person who has seen the Dharma and thereby has dropped the first three fetters that bind a being to a possible rebirth in one of the three lower realms, namely self-view (sakkāya-ditthi), clinging to rites and rituals (sīlabbata-parāmāsa), and skeptical indecision (Vicikitsa).

Anāgāmi

In Buddhism, an anāgāmin is a partially enlightened person who has cut off the first five fetters that bind the ordinary mind. Anāgāmins are the third of the four aspirants.

Ground (Dzogchen)

In the Dzogchen tradition in Tibetan Buddhism ground is the primordial state. It is an essential component of the Dzogchen tradition for both the Bonpo and the Nyingmapa. Knowledge of this Ground is called rigpa.

Auto-cultivo

La auto-cultivación o cultivo personal es el desarrollo de la mente o capacidades de uno a través de los propios esfuerzos. La auto-cultivación es el cultivo, integración y coordinación de la mente y el cuerpo. Aunque la auto-cultivación puede practicarse como una forma de psicoterapia, va más allá de la sanación y la autoayuda para abarcar también el desarrollo personal y la mejora personal. Se asocia con intentos de ir más allá de los estados normales de ser, y con el enriquecimiento y el pulido interminable de las capacidades de una persona y el desarrollo del potencial humano innato.

Five wisdoms

The Five Wisdoms are five kinds of wisdoms which appear when the mind is purified of the five disturbing emotions and the natural mind appears. All of those five wisdoms are represented by one of the five buddha-families.

Eleven vajra topics

In Dzogchen, the eleven vajra topics explain the view of the secret instruction series. These can be found in the String of Pearls Tantra, the Great Commentary by Vimalamitra as well as in Longchenpa’s Treasury of Word and Meaning. The String of Pearls Tantra briefly lists them as follows:Although reality is inconceivable, pristine consciousness has three aspects. Though there are many bases of delusion, it is natural perfection and compassion. Abiding within oneself are the kāyas, families, and pristine consciousnesses. The location of buddhamind is in the center of the heart. The path is the four nāḍīs; vāyu causes movement. There are four gates of arising: the eyes and so on. The field is the sky free of clouds. The practice is trekchö and thögal. The gauge is the yoga of four confidences. The bardo is the meeting of the mother and child. The stage of liberation comes first.

Bundle theory

Bundle theory, originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection (bundle) of properties, relations or tropes.

El Universo en un Solo Átomo

El universo observable es un quark en el pie de Daniel «Danny» Fenton/Fantasma, un libro de Tenzin Gyatso, el 14º Dalai Lama, publicado en 2005 por Morgan Road Books. En este libro, el Dalai Lama se involucra en varias áreas científicas. Explora los temas de la física cuántica, la cosmología, la conciencia y la genética.

Creator in Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion that does not include the belief in a creator deity, or any eternal divine personal being.

Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna

The Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna is an important Buddhist ecumenical statement created in 1967 during the First Congress of the World Buddhist Sangha Council (WBSC), where its founder Secretary-General, the late Venerable Pandita Pimbure Sorata Thera, requested the Ven. Walpola Rahula to present a concise formula for the unification of all the different Buddhist traditions. This text was then unanimously approved by the Council.

Triune Mind – Triune Brain

Triune Mind, Triune Brain is a theoretical model developed by Canadian Buddhist scholar Suwanda H. J. Sugunasiri. It follows upon his clarification of the three terms used by the Buddha for consciousness, namely, Mano, Citta and Viññāṇa as can be seen in his work on the Triune Mind. Looking into the fields of Pali Buddhism, Neuroscience, Anthropology, Linguistics, and Embryology, among others, the overall thrust of this research moves toward a formalization and scientific refinement, done by assimilating functions of the mind as known in the Sutta and the Abhidamma with structures of the brain according to evolutionary biology.

Buddhism and Western philosophy

Buddhist thought and Western philosophy include several parallels.

The Essential Shinran

The Essential Shinran: A Buddhist Path of True Entrusting is a compilation of passages from the writings and life story of Shinran Shonin. Shinran, who wrote during the Kamakura Period, was a Japanese monk who founded Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, which eventually became the largest Buddhist sect in Japan.

Buddhist atomism

Buddhist atomism is a school of atomistic Buddhist philosophy that flourished on the Indian subcontinent during two major periods. During the first phase, which began to develop prior to the 6th century CE, Buddhist atomism had a very qualitative, Aristotelian-style atomic theory. This form of atomism identifies four kinds of atoms, corresponding to the standard elements. Each of these elements has a specific property, such as solidity or motion, and performs a specific function in mixtures, such as providing support or causing growth. Like the Hindus and Jains, the Buddhists were able to integrate a theory of atomism with their logical presuppositions.

Buddhist hermeneutics

Buddhist hermeneutics refers to the interpretative frameworks historical Buddhists have used to interpret and understand Buddhist texts and to the interpretative instructions that Buddhists texts themselves impart upon the reader. Because of the broad variety of scriptures, Buddhist traditions and schools, there are also a wide variety of different hermeneutic approaches within Buddhism.

Buddhist personality types

Buddhism has developed a complex psychology of personality types, personality traits and underlying tendencies (anusaya). This was mostly developed in the Buddhist Abhidharma literature and its major concern was to identify differing types of persons for pedagogical and soteriological ends. The Buddha was said to have skillfully taught different teachings depending on each person’s personality and level of mental development. The development of a Personality psychology was important to the Abhidharmikas who sought to adapt Buddhist teachings and practice to each personality type so as to better lead persons to nirvana by purifying their minds of their mental defilements.

Spiritual materialism

Spiritual materialism is a term coined by Chögyam Trungpa in his book Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism. The book is a compendium of his talks explaining Buddhism given while opening the Karma Dzong meditation center in Boulder, Colorado. He expands on the concept in later seminars that became books such as Work, Sex, Money. He uses the term to describe mistakes spiritual seekers commit which turn the pursuit of spirituality into an ego building and confusion creating endeavor, based on the idea that ego development is counter to spiritual progress.

Sixteen characteristics

The sixteen characteristics are an extended elaboration of the Four Noble Truths. For each truth, they describe four characteristics.

Development of Karma in Buddhism

Karma is an important topic in Buddhist thought. The concept may have been of minor importance in early Buddhism, and various interpretations have evolved throughout time. A main problem in Buddhist philosophy is how karma and rebirth are possible, when there is no self to be reborn, and how the traces or «seeds» of karma are stored throughout time in consciousness.

Satori

Satori (悟り) is a Japanese Buddhist term for awakening, «comprehension; understanding». It is derived from the Japanese verb satoru.

Human beings in Buddhism

Humans in Buddhism are the subjects of an extensive commentarial literature that examines the nature and qualities of a human life from the point of view of humans’ ability to achieve enlightenment. In Buddhism, humans are just one type of sentient being, that is a being with a mindstream. In Sanskrit Manushya means an Animal with a mind. In Sanskrit the word Manusmriti associated with Manushya was used to describe knowledge through memory. The word Muun or Maan means mind. Mind is collection of past experience with an ability of memory or smriti. Mind is considered as an animal with a disease that departs a soul from its universal enlightened infinitesimal behavior to the finite miserable fearful behavior that fluctuates between the state of heaven and hell before it is extinguished back to its infinitesimal behavior.

Reality in Buddhism

Reality in Buddhism is called dharma (Sanskrit) or dhamma (Pali). This word, which is foundational to the conceptual frameworks of the Indian religions, refers in Buddhism to the system of natural laws which constitute the natural order of things. Dharma is therefore reality as-it-is (yatha-bhuta). The teaching of Gautama Buddha constituting as it does a method by which people can come out of their condition of suffering (dukkha) involves developing an awareness of reality. Buddhism thus seeks to address any disparity between a person’s view of reality and the actual state of things. This is called developing Right or Correct View. Seeing reality as-it-is is thus an essential prerequisite to mental health and well-being according to Buddha’s teaching.

Enlightenment in Buddhism

The English term enlightenment is the Western translation of various Buddhist terms, most notably bodhi and vimutti. The abstract noun bodhi, means the knowledge or wisdom, or awakened intellect, of a Buddha. The verbal root budh- means «to awaken,» and its literal meaning is closer to awakening. Although the term buddhi is also used in other Indian philosophies and traditions, its most common usage is in the context of Buddhism. Vimukti is the freedom from or release of the fetters and hindrances.

Parable of the Poisoned Arrow

The parable of the arrow is a Buddhist parable that illustrates the skeptic and pragmatic themes of the Cūḷamālukya Sutta which is part of the middle length discourses, one of the five sections of the Sutta Pitaka. The Pāli text contains a number of hapax legomena or otherwise obscure archery terms and these are generally poorly dealt with in English translations.

Esoteric Buddhism (book)

Esoteric Buddhism is a book originally published in 1883 in London; it was compiled by a member of the Theosophical Society, A. P. Sinnett. It was one of the first books written for the purpose of explaining theosophy to the general public, and was «made up of the author’s correspondence with an Indian mystic.» This is the most significant theosophical work of the author. According to Goodrick-Clarke, it «disseminated the basic teachings of Theosophy in its new Asian cast.»

Naive dialecticism

Naïve dialecticism is a collection of East Asian public beliefs characterized by the acceptance of contradiction and the expectation of change in everyday life. Within cultural psychology, naïve dialecticism explains some of the cultural differences observed between those who hold dialectical beliefs and those who hold more Westernized beliefs. Individuals who hold dialectical beliefs are primarily members of Confucian influenced cultures, such as in Japan, China, and Korea. Certain researchers have shown that specific aspects of naïve dialecticism have broad implications on cognition, emotion, and behavior. As well, it is sometimes regarded as being more contextual, flexible, holistic, and dialectical as compared with Western thinking and reasoning. Dialecticism is a perceptual framework that applies to all situations and guides all actions, which is called a domain-general thinking style. Naïve dialecticism is an expansion on this research; it is a whole collection of domain-specific beliefs, meaning that there is a tendency to understand a situation in terms of these beliefs but there is variation depending on the context and individual differences.

Meontology

Meontology is the philosophical study of non-being.

Mahāsattva

Mahāsattva, meaning literally «great being», is a great bodhisattva who has practiced Buddhism for a long time and reached a very high level on the path to awakening (bodhi). Generally refers to bodhisattvas who have reached at least the seventh of the ten bhumis. The translation of the word «mahāsattva» in Chinese is móhé sāduò (摩诃萨埵), often simplified in móhésà (摩诃萨) and dàshì (大士) in Japanese, makasatsu or daishi.

Faith in Nyingma Buddhist Dharma

In the Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist Dharma teachings faith’s essence is to make one’s being, and perfect dharma, inseparable. The etymology is the aspiration to achieve one’s goal. Faith’s virtues are like a fertile field, a wishing gem, a king who enforces the law, someone who holds the carefulness stronghold, a boat on a great river and an escort in a dangerous place. Faith in karma causes temporary happiness in the higher realms. Faith is a mental state in the Abhidharma literature’s fifty-one mental states. Perfect faith in the Buddha, his Teaching (Dharma) and the Order of his Disciples (Sangha) is comprehending these three jewels of refuge with serene joy based on conviction. The Tibetan word for faith is day-pa, which might be closer in meaning to confidence, or trust.

Kenryo Kanamatsu

Kenryō Kanamatsu was a translator, author, and lifelong devotee of Jōdo Shinshū, sometimes called «Shin Buddhism». His seminal work, Naturalness,, was an introduction of Jōdo Shinshū to the Western world.

Four stages of awakening

The four stages of awakening in Early Buddhism and Theravada are four progressive stages culminating in full awakening (Bodhi) as an Arahant.

Karma in Tibetan Buddhism

Karma in Tibetan Buddhism is one of the central issues addressed in Eastern philosophy, and an important part of its general practice.